The stress identified by researchers could be difficult for most people to identify, as the horse may not show visible stress behaviours.

“I believe the true classical masters would embrace this information as a much better explanation of what they felt, but had only the language of their day available to them to use to explain.” 

Horses that suffer from chronic poor saddle fit usually have skin changes that lead to chronic skin dryness and nerve tissue atrophy with the resulting lack of response.

Disorders of the muscular system cause poor performance and in some cases, death; yet in certain groups of athletic horses, 5% to 25% of individuals have heritable muscular disorders.

“It was interesting to see how often the horses performed the chewing behaviour and also how clear it was that all individuals did chew – not only ‘submissive’ individuals.”

In 1998, Dr Bob Cook started asking himself how the use of a bit affected the horse and rider. Here is where the research has led.

What the researchers observed was consistent and repetitive vertical movement asymmetry of the forehand during walking.

“When horses are over-trained they start to show a range of mental issues including switching off, response lowering, aggression etc.”

Research spurred by increasing interest in use of equine training equipment.

“By giving vets a clear understanding of pain associated behaviour markers they will be better able to recognise pain-related behaviour in ridden horses, which may reflect lameness.” 

Researchers in Hungary assess levels of the stress hormone cortisol and heart-rate variability.

Caprilli was an Italian cavalry officer whose pioneering techniques transformed the way horses were trained and ridden.